Chapter 0: Gaius Julius Caesar

Early Life

Gaius Julius Caesar, born on 12 July 100 B.C., was part of the patrician gens Julia. This family, which claimed descent from Venus through Aeneas, didn't gain influence until the early first century B.C. Caesar's father, though politically active, never reached consulship. After his father died in 84 B.C., Caesar’s career began under Sulla’s dictatorship. He went into hiding for refusing to divorce Cornelia, Cinna’s daughter, before eventually reconciling with Sulla.

Caesar’s career began in Asia Minor, where he earned the honor of the civic crown for bravery. In 71 BC, he entered politics as a military tribune and served as a quaestor in Hispania Ulterior. He became aedile in 65 B.C., Pontifex Maximus in 63 B.Cå., and praetor in 62 B.C. by using publicly held games and oratory to gain support. His political alliance with Pompey was crucial to his success, culimating in his decision to run for the consulship over a triumph after returning from military conquests in Spain in 60 B.C.

Consulship and Gallic Wars

Caesar was elected to the office of consul in 59 B.C. and formed the First Triumvirate, an informal political alliance, with Pompey and Crassus to consolidate power. He pursued land reforms, tax relief, and ratification of Pompey’s eastern settlements, often facing opposition from his co-consul Bibulus and other senators.

Caesar’s military achievements in the Gallic Wars in modern-day France (58-50 B.C.) were incredibly important, and he documented his campaigns in the “Commentaries.” He successfully repelled and subdued various Gallic tribes, including the Helvetii and the Belgae, during battles like the Battle of Bibracte and the Siege of Alesia against the leader of the allied Gallic resistance, Vercingetorix. These campaigns allowed Rome to annex Gaul successfully and bolstered Caesar’s reputation, leading to political maneuvers in Rome. Although he faced opposition from notable senators like Cato, Cicero, and many others, his alliances and military success allowed him to maintain and extend his command, ultimately laying the foundation for his later rise to power.

Civil War

Between 52 and 49 B.C., tensions between Caesar and Pompey grew due to political maneuvers by conservative senators who sought to recall Caesar from Gaul without granting him his honors of annexing Gaul and without allowing Caesar to run for a second consulship. Pompey, initially an ally of the First Triumvirate, was persuaded by Cato and Bibulus to oppose Caesar. In January 49 B.C., the Senate issued an ultimatum known as the “final decree” and declared Caesar an enemy of Rome. Enraged, Caesar crossed the Rubicon to ignite a civil war. In Roman law, any Roman Generals were not allowed to enter the Italian Peninsula, marked by the Rubicon River. By crossing the Rubicon, Caesar was engaging in active rebellion. Caesar advanced quickly, forcing Pompey to flee to Greece. After defeating Pompey in the decisive Battle of Pharsalus in 48 B.C., Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was killed by local officials seeking to curry favor with Caesar.

When Caesar arrived in Egypt, the king, Ptolemy XIII, presented Caesar as the head of Pompey. Although they were enemies, Caesar did not want to see Pompey killed. To address this act, Caesar became deeply involved in Egyptian politics and intervened in the Civil War between Ptolemy XIII and his sister Cleopatra, ultimately supporting Cleopatra. Caesar’s forces defeated Ptolemy XIII at the Battle of the Nile, leading to Ptolemy’s death and Cleopatra’s installment as ruler.

Labienus, initially Caesar’s lieutenant in the Gallic War, defected to Pompey’s side during the civil war. After quelling opposition in Asia Minor, Caesar returned to Italy to deal with the mutinous troops of the 10th Legion and political unrest. In 46 B.C., he defeated the remaining republican forces in Africa at the decisive Battle of Thapsus, leading to the suicide of the key senator Cato. Pompey’s supporters, including Labienus and Pompey’s sons, fled to Spain, where Caesar achieved a final victory at the Battle of Munda in 45 B.C.. Labienus died in battle, and Caesar secured his dominance as dictator of Rome.

Assassination

Julius Caesar assumed the title dictator perpetuo in February 44 BC after being appointed dictator multiple times since 49 B.C. These were considered honors, reflecting his supreme position rather than legal power. Caesar’s most notable reform was the introduction of the Julian calendar. He also increased the number of magistrates and senators to help manage the vast empire and reward his supporters during the civil war. His other reforms included founding colonies, extending citizenship to conquered territories, and reducing the grain dole. In January 44 B.C., attempts to call Caesar rex (king) were shut down, but shortly after, he assumed dictatorship for life, leading to his assassination on 15 March 44 B.C. The conspiracy was led by Brutus and Cassius, formed by the summer of 45 B.C. and culminated in Caesar’s murder by multiple conspirators. After his death, Caesar’s right hand man Antony spoke to a crowd and incited public outrage against the conspirators. The conspirators failed to secure control, leading to the formation of the Second Triumvirate by Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian (Caesar’s heir and nephew). The following civil wars resulted in Octavian’s control of the empire in 31 B.C.

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