Unleashed Cataclysm

Nuclear weapons dictate the warfare and foreign policies of every global superpower today. Despite their profound impact on modern policies, these weapons have only been utilized in warfare twice: the Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The decision to deploy atomic bombs continues to be debated by civilians and historians from both sides of this event. However, a thorough examination of the historical context suggests that the United States of America made the correct decision in deploying atomic weapons on the Empire of Japan on August 6 and 9, 1945.

The War
The Conditions Surrounding the United States. In September 1940, the United States began providing resources and military supplies to the Allies. Over a year later, on December 7, 1941, the Empire of Japan launched a surprise attack on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor in Honolulu, Hawaii. The Attack on Pearl Harbor marked the US’s entrance into World War 2 (“Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki”). From then on, the US fought on two fronts: the Eastern Front against Nazi Germany and the Pacific Front against the Empire of Japan.

Moving ahead to a few months before the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Nazi Germany surrendered on May 8, 1945, concluding the war on the Eastern Front. However, Victory in Europe (VE) was hard fought, with the Allies, Soviets, and Nazis engaged in bloody battles until the very end. Many wondered if similar bloody battles would be needed to end the Wong 1 war on the Pacific Front (NBC News). At this stage in the Pacific War, the United States had fought its way to the borders of Japan and was conducting daily firebombings on cities. Additionally, the US planned land invasions, known as Operation Downfall (split into two operations: Operation Olympic and Operation Coronet), which was projected to cost up to one million American lives. By now, Americans were tired of the war, having just defeated the Nazis and with over 100,000 American soldiers lost island-hopping toward Japan (NBC News).

During the Potsdam Conference in July 1845, the United States requested Japan’s conditional surrender, conditions which included the establishment of a “responsible government” which “freely expressed will of the Japanese people” (Truman). The Japanese government interpreted these as a threat to their culture, perceiving them as an attempt by the West to topple Emperor Hirohito and the overall Japanese imperial system.

Meanwhile, the Manhattan Project, the US’s super secret project to develop nuclear weapons, had successfully developed a nuclear bomb over three years, $2.2 billion worth of funding, and 130,000 of the world’s greatest minds. The US was in a race against the Nazis, the Soviet Union, Great Britain, and Japan to develop the first atomic bomb. It was intended for use against Nazi Germany but was not completed in time. Despite this, the project was seen to be completed to avoid wasting resources or losing the atomic arms race (NBC News).

Conditions Surrounding the Empire of Japan. On September 27, 1940, Japan signed the Tripartite Pact, allying themselves with the Axis powers: Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. From 1940 to 1941, Japan mainly fought against the Republic of China and other Pacific countries. Suddenly, on December 7, 1941, Japan attacked the United States (“Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki”). They did so due to scarcity of resources, America’s embargo policy, and Hitler’s Wong 2 urging to attack the US (Hackler). However, this calculated attack prompted US entry into the war, forcing Japan to fight a powerful enemy.

By the time of the Potsdam Conference in 1945, Japan had exhausted most of its resources (Yasuba). They were pushed back to the Japanese main island, repelled by the Republic of China, and defeated on Pacific islands by the United States. Additionally, the US bombings on Japan, starting on November 17, 1944, killed over half a million Japanese citizens, decimating infrastructure and morale. Additionally, natural resources become scarce, resulting in decreased military power and the starvation of Japanese citizens. The approach of winter months, paired with the devastated infrastructure and lack of housing, foresaw the possibility of hundreds of thousands of civilian deaths from starvation and homeless-induced hypothermia (NBC News). The Japanese leaders understood this, but the alternative was accepting the Potsdam Declaration, which would eradicate the imperial system that had existed in Japan for over 1,500 years: a vital part of Japanese culture and identity (Frank). In an effort to end the war quickly while still maintaining leverage, the Japanese leaders decided to keep fighting until a victory and then offer peace negotiations. This way, Japan could end the war and their citizens' suffering while still maintaining control of their own government (NBC News).

The Bombing of Hiroshima. An atomic bomb decimated the city of Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, at 8:16 am. The “Little Boy,” an atomic bomb with 64 kg of uranium, was detonated 1,968 feet above ground. With a blast radius of 1.3 km, “Little Boy” is estimated to have killed ~70,000 people instantly. Thousands more died the following days from severe burns and, later discovered, radiation poisoning. Japanese officials met to discuss the decimation of Hiroshima, and disbelieving Americans could replicate this feat again (“Hiroshima and Nagasaki Bombings”).

The Bombing of Nagasaki. Three days after the Hiroshima bombing, an atomic bomb decimated the city of Nagasaki on August 9, 1945, at 11:02 am. The “Fat Man,” an atomic bomb with 6.2 kg of plutonium, was detonated 1,650 feet above ground. With a blast radius of 1.6 km, “Fat Man” is estimated to have killed ~40,000 people instantly. Thousands more died the following days from severe burns and, later discovered, radiation poisoning. With the second deployment of a second atomic weapon, Japanese officials realized their defeat. Six days after the bombing of Nagasaki, Emperor Hirohito gave a speech detailing Japan’s plan to surrender to the United States. (“Hiroshima and Nagasaki Bombings”). The total death count of the two bombings combined is between 130,000-215,000 people.

Considering the circumstances surrounding the United States–including the eager end of the war, the completed Manhattan Project, and Japan’s understandable response towards a surrender offer–the decision to deploy atomic weapons on Hiroshima and Nagasaki is justified.

The United States of America: Post WW2

President Truman and the United States Government. The alternative to the atomic bomb was a ground invasion, known as Operation Downfall. In the planning stages, the estimated death toll for American soldiers reached up to one million. The ongoing bombings of Japanese cities were deemed unsustainable, as bombing was expensive and detrimental to the Japanese civilians. Thus, the atomic bomb was seen as the most reasonable path forward. The next issue was how to use it.

To determine the best course of action regarding atomic weapons and energy, United States Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson formed a secret committee called the Interim Committee. Composed of political, scientific, and industrial civilian figures, the committee aimed to procure a method to reduce the number of lives lost while forcing Japan to Wong 4 unconditionally surrender. To force a surrender, the chosen method must break the Japanese spirit.

To aid President Truman in his decision, the Interim Committee presented six options. The first option involved using the atomic bomb as a tactical weapon to support a ground invasion, but was quickly ruled out due to the bomb’s deterrent effect and a desire to save American lives. The second option was to demonstrate the bomb’s power in front of military or political leaders, but was ruled out because it would not break the spirit of the Japanese people Options three and four, which were a demonstration on a military target and using it against a military target respectively, were similarly ruled out. This left options five and six, which were using it on a city with a warning and without a warning respectively (The Interim Committee). President Truman ultimately chose option five.

There are still debates regarding the dropping of warning pamphlets, including their distribution, timing, and content. It is generally believed that pamphlets contained some type of warning to evacuate and were dropped throughout Japan in August, 1945. Some criticize the effort because pamphlets allegedly did not make it to Hiroshima or Nagasaki with sufficient time to evacuate (“Warning Pamphlets”).

It should be noted that President Truman and the Interim Committee were not solely focused on the cost for Americans, but the cost for Japan as well. Stimson (or Truman, according to some sources) specifically dismissed the city of Kyoto as a potential target, citing it would affect the Japanese culture and morale too devastatingly (NBC News).

Manhattan Project Scientists. Due to Christopher Nolan’s recent Oppenheimer (2023) movie, the knowledge and opinions of Los Alamos scientist, most notably Julius Robert Oppenheimer, gained increased scrutiny and significance in the atomic bomb debate. J. Robert Wong 5 Oppenheimer was the director of the Los Alamos Project, the portion of the Manhattan project responsible for the design, development, and creation of the atomic bomb. Due to his leading role in the bomb’s development, Oppenheimer is often called the “Father of the Atomic Bomb” (“J. Robert Oppenheimer”). Due to his expertise in atomic physics and his major role in the development of the bomb, Oppenheimer’s opinions are highly valued and considered.

In an interview conducted by CBS News in 1965, Oppenheimer acknowledged the necessity of the atomic bomb, stating; “I learned from many but above all from General Marshall and from Colonel Stimson the Secretary of War, the view that they had, that we would have to fight our way to the main islands and that it would involve a slaughter of Americans and Japanese on a massive scale was arrived at by then, in good faith, with regret, and on the best evidence that they then had... The ending of the war by this means, certainly cruel, was not undertaken lightly. But I am not, as of today, confident that a better course was then open. I have not a very good answer to this question” (CBS News, 0:07).

Oppenheimer’s statements match that of Operation Downfall, which was estimated to be costly in both resources and lives on both sides. However, it should be noted that Oppenheimer most notably receives this information from General Marshall, a military general who planned Operation Downfall (and therefore knew the cost), and Colonel Stimson, who created the Interim Board for the use of the atomic bomb. To paraphrase Oppenheimer’s eloquent response, the decision made by the government and the involved committees was made in good intentions and regrets. They did not wish to devastate that many civilian lives, but the alternatives were too costly. Oppenheimer believed there was no better way available at the time, and that despite the Wong 6 cruelness and heavy consciousness, the decision made by the committees and President Truman to deploy the atomic bomb was the correct one.

As Oppenheimer later implies in the interview, the Los Alamos scientists were divided on opinions regarding how to use their creation. Oppenheimer “doubted whether there could be devised any sufficiently startling demonstration that would convince the Japanese they ought to throw in the sponge” (NBC News). Most Los Alamos scientists believed the same. A few thought a demonstration would be enough. Others believed that the bomb should not be used at all. Leo Szilard, a Hungarian physicist who worked at the in the Manhattan Project at the Met lab in Chicago (fun fact: they used UChicago’s metallurgical lab to study uranium for the Manhattan project), petitioned to only use the atomic bomb on Japan if the US offered a chance to surrender first (“Szilard Petition”).

Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force Dwight D. Eisenhower. Perhaps the most cited proof against the deployment of atomic bombs was President Eisenhower’s comments towards it. Eisenhower, who was the Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force, or the leader of all allied troops on the Eastern Front, was critical towards the use of atomic weapons, stating he “was against it on two counts. First, the Japanese were ready to surrender, and it wasn’t necessary to hit them with that awful thing. Second, I hated to see our country be the first to use such a weapon” (Carney). This distaste for atomic weapons was not reflected in his policies, however, as seen in his massive retaliation policy, where the US would retaliate with nuclear weapons if attacked.

Overall, post-WWII Americans supported the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, as reflected by the 1945 Gallup poll, where 85% of Americans approved of the bombing. It should be noted how approval rates dropped to 53% in 1990 and continue to drop (Moore).

The Empire of Japan: Post WW2

Emperor Hirohito and the Empire of Japan. Nine days after the Hiroshima bombing and six days after the Nagasaki bombing, Emperor Hirohito gave a radio broadcast speech, now coined the “Jewel Voice Broadcast” on August 15, 1945. This was the first time an Emperor ever addressed the nation by radio, a momentous occasion considering Emperors were thought to be descendants of divine beings and too great to speak to commoners. The “Jewel Voice Broadcast” was Emperor Hirohito’s announcement to the Japanese citizens concerning the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and Japan’s plan to surrender. While Hirohito never explicitly used the word “surrender,” the tone and contents of the speech imply such. Hirohito stated America made “a new and most cruel bomb, the power of which to damage is indeed incalculable” (Hirohito). The use of an atomic weapon on a city clearly achieved its goal in breaking the Japanese spirit and forcing Japan to surrender.

Emperor Hirohito's decision to deliver the broadcast went against the wishes of the prime minister and military leaders, who held significant power in Japan (NBC News). The destruction brought by the atomic bomb ultimately influenced Emperor Hirohito to go against his powerful advisors and surrender. From this perspective, the United States achieved their goal of forcing Japan to surrender. However, it is worth noting the three day period between the first and second bombing. It took Hirohito six days to get his radio broadcast out, suggesting the three days between the two bombings was not sufficient time to allow the Japanese to surrender.

Hibakusha. The survivors of the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki are known as hibakusha. As of May 2016, over 130,000 hibakusha still live in the cities that were bombed. One such survivor, Shigemitsu Tanaka, was interviewed by New York Times writer Motoko Rich in 2016. Tanaka, the director of the Nagasaki Atomic Bomb Survivor's Council, was 5 years old Wong 8 when “Fat Man” decimated Nagasaki. Despite the horrors of what he saw and the effects of the bomb on his parents (who suffered from repeated radiation-induced illnesses), Tanaka believes the most important goal, out of all goals, is the abolition of nuclear weapons (Rich).

Yoshitoshi Fukahori, who was 16 when Nagasaki was bombed, saw the horrors induced by atomic weapons. While trying to escape the bombed city, he encountered a woman whose “skin came off in strips” (Rich). Despite this, Fukahori understands why the US did not issue an apology for the bombings in 2016, stating the US lost many lives in WWII and how “We are all victims of war” (Rich).

The overall tone of the interview implies the hibakusha have varying levels of mild resentment towards the United States for their decision, but are more focused on the impacts of atomic weapons themselves, not so much the USA's decision.

While Japanese citizens, victims, and leaders from the post-WWII era certainly do not approve of the decision to drop the bombs, many still recognize its importance or necessity.

CONNECTIONS, SIMILARITIES, AND DIFFERENCES

Criticism of Modern Japanese Conduct Towards WWII. Paul Jackson is a columnist for the Calgary Sun, and wrote a scathing article towards Japan and their response to WWII events. He stated Japan never offered apologies for their war crimes and criticized how the war is “glossed over” in Japanese education. Jackson calls the remembrance of the bombings by Japanese Prime Minister Yoshiro Mori a charade, called their attacks during WWII cowardly, labeled their military leaders as evil, and implied the Japanese people are just whiny (Jackson).

Government Response to Jackson. Spokesman for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan Ryuichiro Yamazaki responded to Jackson’s article on August 12, 2000. In the short and polite letter, Yamazaki corrects Jackson, citing Prime Minister Tomiichi Murayama blatantly Wong 9 apologizing in 1995 for the Japanese war atrocities in WWII. Prime Minister Yoshiro Mori also expressed his “deep remorse” on August 15, 2000. Yamazaki also highlights that “all 33 middle and high schools history textbooks used in Japan... mention the damages and sufferings caused by Japan's wartime actions” (Yamazaki). No response from Jackson is given.

History Textbooks. The history textbook used at SI focuses on the number of American lives saved through the use of atomic weapons. Operation Downfall is emphasized, further supporting the USA’s decision to deploy the bomb. The textbook does mention Eisenhower’s opinion, evening out some of its bias (Colon, et. al).

Modern Japanese Citizens. Mark Watanabe is an American-raised Japanese citizen who teaches English in Japan. His son Sho is in the 11th grade. According to Sho, Japanese history education focuses on the facts and destructive impacts of the atomic bomb. Japanese education mainly focuses on the condition of Japan towards the end of the war, highlighting the lack of manpower and resources (Watanabe, Mark & Sho). Overall, the teaching style for history in Japan can be seen as sterile, not pushing opinions or bias onto their students, but giving them facts and allowing individual opinions to form.

Conclusions

The political and economic situation the Empire of Japan faced during the closing days of World War II forced them to resist, despite their inability to win. This resistance, paired with the political, domestic, and economical situation in America created a circumstance where the deployment of atomic bombs was the best course of action. Through the opinions of past and modern leaders and citizens, it is evident that the decision to use nuclear weapons to bomb Hiroshima and Nagasaki, while terrible, was the optimal decision available.

Work Cited

Hirohito. “The Jewel Voice Broadcast.” The National Museum of Science & History, 2022, ahf.nuclearmuseum.org/ahf/key-documents/jewel-voice-broadcast/. Accessed 30 Nov. 2023.

Jackson, Paul. “Remember Why Hiroshima Happened.” Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, Calgary Sun, www.mofa.go.jp/j_info/japan/opinion/paul.html. Accessed 8 Feb. 2024.

Rich, Motoko. "Survivors Recount Horrors of Hiroshima and Nagasaki." Gale In Context: High School, New York Times, 28 May 2016, link.gale.com/apps/doc/A453591069/SUIC?u=san74543&sid=bookmark-SUIC&xid=896 1a222. Accessed 30 Nov. 2023.

“Szilard Petition” National Museum of Nuclear Science and History, Atomic Heritage Foundation, 17 July 1945, https://ahf.nuclearmuseum.org/ahf/key-documents/szilard-petition/. Accessed 17 Apr. 2024.

Truman, Harry S, et al. “Potsdam Declaration.” Birth of the Constitution of Japan, National Diet Library, 26 July 1945, www.ndl.go.jp/constitution/e/etc/c06.html. Accessed 17 Apr. 2024.

Watanabe, Mark & Sho. Interview over Video Chat. Conducted by Kaiden Wong. 4 Feb. 2024.

Yamazaki, Ryuichiro. “Letter Written in Response to the Article ‘Remember Why Hiroshima Happened’ in the Edmonton Sun on 12 August 2000.” Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, Edmonton Sun, 12 Aug. 2000, www.mofa.go.jp/j_info/japan/opinion/yamazaki3.html. Accessed 8 Feb. 2024.

“Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki - Causes, Impact & Lives Lost.” History.Com, A&E Television Networks, 18 Nov. 2009, https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/bombing-of-hiroshima-and-nagasaki. Accessed 8 Feb. 2024.

Carney, Timothy P. “‘Japan Was Already Defeated’: The Case against the Nuclear Bomb ...” American Enterprise Institute, Washington Examiner, 26 July 2023, www.aei.org/op-eds/japan-was-already-defeated-the-case-against-the-nuclear-bomb-and-f or-basic-morality/. Accessed 7 Feb. 2024.

CBS News. “From the Archives: Robert Oppenheimer in 1965 on If the Bomb was Necessary.” Youtube, 19 Jul. 2023. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AdtLxlttrHg. Accessed 30 Nov. 2023.

Colon, Jose, et al. American History, HMH, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company, Orlando, FL, 2018.

Frank, Richard B. "To Bear the Unbearable": Japan's Surrender, Part I.” The National WWII Museum | New Orleans, The National World War II Museum, 18 Aug. 2020, www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/japans-surrender-part-i. Accessed 6 Feb. 2024.

Hackler, Jeffrey. “Japan’s Motives for Bombing Pearl Harbor, 1941.” Association for Asian Studies, The Association for Asian Studies, 2001, www.asianstudies.org/publications/eaa/archives/japans-motives-for-bombing-pearl-harbo r-1941/. Accessed 17 Apr. 2024.

“Hiroshima and Nagasaki Bombings.” ICAN, International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons, www.icanw.org/hiroshima_and_nagasaki_bombings. Accessed 8 Feb. 2024.

“J. Robert Oppenheimer” National Museum of Nuclear Science and History, Atomic Heritage Foundation, 2022, ahf.nuclearmuseum.org/ahf/profile/j-robert-oppenheimer/. Accessed 17 Apr. 2024.

Moore, David W. “Majority Supports Use of Atomic Bomb on Japan in WWII.” Gallup.com, Gallup, 11 Apr. 2021, news.gallup.com/poll/17677/majority-supports-use-atomic-bomb-japan-wwii.aspx. Accessed 30 Nov. 2023.

NBC News. “Oppenheimer: The Decision to Drop the Bomb (1965)” Youtube, 14 Jul. 2023. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-JWxIVVeV98. Accessed 6 Feb. 2024.

“The Interim Committee” Nuclear Museum of Nuclear Science and History, Atomic Heritage Foundation, 5 June 2014, ahf.nuclearmuseum.org/ahf/history/interim-committee/. Accessed 7 Feb. 2024.

“Warning Leaflets” National Museum of Nuclear Science and History, Atomic Heritage Foundation, 2022, https://ahf.nuclearmuseum.org/ahf/key-documents/warning-leaflets/. Accessed 17 Apr. 2024.

Yasuba, Yasukichi. “Did Japan Ever Suffer from a Shortage of Natural Resources Before World War II?” The Journal of Economic History, vol. 56, no. 3, 1996, pp. 543–60. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/2123713. Accessed 18 Apr. 2024.